SEASONAL INFERTILITY IN OUTDOOR PIGS IN THE EAST OF ENGLAND
A.R. Peters and R.L. Pitt

Abstract
The breeding records for 1989-1995 were analysed for 20 outdoor pig breeding units in East Anglia, comprising over 70,000 services (>61,000 first services), to determine if a seasonal pattern existed. There was a highly significant variation in numbers of live pigs born per litter with respect to month of sow service. The mean live litter size was maximum for first services during April (11.21 0.04 piglets) and minimal for those served in August (10.62 0.04 piglets). A similar pattern occurred for repeat services and for total pigs born to all services. Also, these patterns were replicated across all parities, except parities 9 and 10. The proportion of sows returning to first service also varied with season and was highest (21.7%) for sows served during the 3rd quarter (July, August and September) compared to quarters 1, 2 and 4 (17.4, 17.1 and 15.4% respectively). There were no significant seasonal effects on weaning to oestrus interval when analysed, either by month of weaning or by month of previous service. Overall, the data suggest an average decrease in farrowing rate of approximately 5% and litter size of 0.5 piglets for services during the summer months.

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THE INFLUENCE OF OUTDOOR PRODUCTION ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF ATROPHIC RHINITIS AND OTHER RESPIRATORY DISEASES IN WEANERS
G. Nagel and G. Bilkei

Abstract
The objective of the study was to determine whether an outdoor production system during the spring - summer season, in a dry continental climate, influenced the production parameters and the pathological manifestations of progressive atrophic rhinitis (PAR) and porcine respiratory disease complex (PRDC).
???? Indoor (ID) or outdoor (OD) raised pigs were exposed to other pigs that showed clinical signs of PAR and PRDC. Weight gains and feed intake of exposed pigs were recorded and nasal swabs for bacterial culture were collected. Pigs were euthanased and snout scores, pneumonia, and pleuritis were assessed and scored.
???? Overall rate of gain was greater in non-infected indoor raised control (C) pigs, compared to indoor raised infected (ID) or outdoor raised infected (OD) animals. Average daily gain and feed intake were significantly greater (P< 0.05) in the ID pigs compared to the OD pigs. Feed efficiency did not differ significantly between groups.
???? All pigs of groups ID, OD and C were culture negative on trial day 0, but the majority of ID and OD pigs became culture positive by trial days 21 and 42 for Bordetella bronchiseptica, Pasteurella multocida types A and D and Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae. At slaughter, C pigs showed no gross pneumonia lesions and had lower visual snout scores compared to OD and ID pigs. Visual atrophic rhinitis scores were significantly higher (P<0.05) in ID pigs compared to OD animals.
???? It is the opinion of the authors that an outdoor production system (at least during spring/summer seasons in a dry continental climate) is advantageous in herds at high risk for respiratory problems.

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PULMONARY ASPERGILLOSIS IN A POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME (PMWS) AFFECTED PIG
J. Segales, M. Domingo, M. Collell, H.E. Jensen and J.L. Blanco

Abstract
Pulmonary and systemic aspergillosis in mammals are very infrequent; among domestic species, reports on porcine aspergillosis are extremely rare. The present report describes the clinical and pathological findings observed in a case of pulmonary aspergillosis in a finishing pig, which was also suffering from Post-weaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS). Since aspergillus spp. are considered an opportunistic pathogen affecting immunocompromised human beings and mammals, it is believed that the presence of pulmonary aspergillosis in this pig further supports the potential immunosuppressive state of PMWS affected pigs.

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PHARMACOKINETICS, MINIMAL INHIBITORY CONCENTRATIONS AND EFFICACY MODEL RELATIONSHIPS FOR SOME GUT INFECTIONS IN PIGS
D.G.S. Burch

Abstract
Guidelines have been recently introduced in the European Union for antimicrobial products, to assess their potential for resistance development and for the demonstration of their efficacy using therapeutic regimens to minimise the risk of selecting antimicrobial resistance. A key part of this is the use of pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic analysis. Much work has been reported on the use of concentration-dependent bactericidal products such as the fluoroquinolones and aminoglycosides administered by injection, in both man and animals, for systemic or respiratory infections. In contrast, little work has been reported on bacteriostatic compounds administered orally for enteric infections, which is the most common route for pigs. Two examples have been described - lincomycin for controlling Lawsonia intracellularis infections in the pig (porcine intestinal adenomatosis) and valnemulin for the prevention and treatment of Brachyspira hyodysenteriae (swine dysentery). Predicted concentrations of lincomycin in the ileum in relation to the intracellular inhibitory concentrations (IIC) of lincomycin against L. intracellularis corresponded very closely with the clinical responses found in challenge studies. This may be due to the IIC study being a bio-model itself. With valnemulin, the concentrations in colonic contents had to be nine times higher than the minimum inhibitory concentration for B. hyodysenteriae to achieve preventative inhibition in a challenge study and 90 times higher to achieve bacterial elimination in a treatment study, as other factors come into play. It demonstrates that prevention is a legitimate claim and not just an excuse for growth promotion and the reliance on treatment regimes only, might actually encourage B. hyodysenteriae resistance development, as seen in Germany.

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EXPERIENCES OF BUILDING A VIRTUAL LIBRARY USING A CASE STUDY OF APPLIED IMAGE ANALYSIS IN ESTIMATING THE WEIGHT OF A PIG
N. Brandl

Abstract
The World Wide Web is a global computer, which serves as a web to connect individual computers with each other, using the telephone lines and satellites. A virtual library is a collection of categories and sub-categories on World Wide Web. Building a virtual library needs experience in gathering information and to manage it in an easy, understandable way. Therefore, the author has attempted to guide the readers in building a virtual library without experience in computer programming. The virtual library has a systematic construction that will be easy to update with recent literature. The virtual library begins with an introduction to the main subject and guides the reader through the most interesting issues of the library. In conclusion, references have been added for further reading. Any person, with or without computer expertise, is able to establish a virtual library, using the building method as described in this paper. The virtual library can be accessed at www.agrsci.dk/hsv/nab/jal/index.htm

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ASSESSING PIGS' HEALTH STATUS BY IMAGE ANALYSIS OF POSTURAL BEHAVIOUR
N. Brandl

Abstract
An attempt has been made to measure the travelling distance for each pig in a pen, using an image analysis system (a semi-automatic system). The travelling distance of a pig measures its activities. Watching pigs' activities by video is difficult and costly. The main purpose of this work was to develop an alternative method for measuring pigs' activities without disturbing pigs in their environment. Computer PC based programme, video frame grabber and image analysis software were developed for the purpose. The programme works in two steps; first, a selected series of video frames with time lapses is made, then selected points on the computer screen locate the pigs' position on the image, and the results are saved onto a computer ASCII file for further analysis. The saved data is used to compute the travelling distance for each pig. Ten Yorkshire pigs (five healthy pigs vs. 5 dwarf pigs) have been used. Dwarf pigs usually have leg problems. The results showed that dwarf pigs had fewer activities than the healthy pigs, because of their bad legs. This pattern explained the pigs' movements around the feeder and in the sleeping and dunging areas and demonstrated the pigs' condition. The study concluded that image analysis is a promising method to monitor pigs' activities in their environment.

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CHARACTERISATION OF COOKED HAM QUALITY USING EARLY POST-MORTEM MEASUREMENTS
C. McDonagh, A.M. Mullen, D.J. Troy, H. Walsh and J.P.Kerry

Abstract
Meat quality comparisons were carried out on hams produced from Mm. semimembranosus (SM) muscles showing evidence of PSE (pale soft exudative) and normal muscles. The use of early post-mortem measurements to characterise the quality of the final cooked product was also investigated. A total of six normal and seven PSE carcases were selected on the basis of pH45min readings from the Mm. longissimus dorsi (LD); pH and electrical conductivity (EC) measurements were recorded in both the LD and SM muscles at 3, 6 and 24hr post-mortem. CIE L*a*b* and percentage reflectance (%R) values were measured on the surface of the SM at 3, 6 and 24hr post-mortem. The muscles were excised after the 24hr measurements were complete and CIE L*a*b*, reflectance and Japanese colour scores (JPCS) were recorded on the exposed surfaces of the SM and LD muscles. Hams were processed using current commercial guidelines and meat quality comparisons carried out on PSE versus normal products. Quality measurements included visual assessment, cook loss, sliceabilty, colour, moisture content, water holding capacity (WHC) and instrumental textural components.

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EFFECT OF ON-FARM TREATMENT, TRANSPORT AND LAIRAGE TIMES ON BRUISING IN SLAUGHTER PIGS IN ZIMBABWE
N.T. Kusina, S. Sachikonye, J. Kusina, P. Ndiweni and N. Waran

Abstract
The current study was conducted to evaluate pig-handling procedures from the farm, through transit to the abattoir. This was following criticism by producers of the processor for purported revenue losses due to unexplained carcase down-grading. This precipitated strained relations between producers and processors. The main objective of this study was to identify the points at which bruising of slaughter pigs occurred and its cause. The study was from the farm to the abattoir and was also used to assess and document the prevalence of Pale Soft Exudative (PSE). The hypothesis tested was that poor handling of pigs on the farm, during transport and within the abattoir, contributed to carcase bruising.
     A total throughput of 8,528 pigs from 40 farms delivered to a private abattoir within a 250 km radius was monitored from August 1999 to February 2000. Monitoring included observation (without interference of pig handling procedures on-farm) to and within the abattoir. Isolated malpractices that could account for carcase bruising and/or PSE were also studied.
     Of the 8,528 pigs, 99% were baconers and the remainder were porkers and manufacturing pigs. Overall bruising was 0.98%. No cases of PSE were recorded. The results indicated that injuries were due to pigs fighting during transit, high loading densities and fighting in lairages prior to slaughter.

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NON-RESTRAINT FARROWING SYSTEMS: AN INDUSTRY APPROACH
T.A. Jones, E.J. Hunter, P. Johnson and J. Guise

Abstract
The production performance of 830 sow lactations through seven different farrowing systems on one commercial site was studied to assess the feasibility of commercially available individual non-restraint systems; no group farrowing systems were included. There was no difference in sow weight, P2 (mm) and body condition on entry to and exit from the farrowing accommodation, or in numbers born alive per litter and litter weight. Farrowing systems significantly affected piglet mortality, cause of mortality, growth rate and numbers weaned. The best and most consistent performing system was the crate with fully slatted floor. Non-restraint systems with fully slatted floors, i.e. hinge crate and VIP, performed next best, and non-restraint systems with straw performed the worse.

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SUSPECTED ADVERSE REACTION SURVEILLANCE SCHEME
S. Knivett

Abstract
The Suspected Adverse Reaction Surveillance Scheme has been in operation since 1984. It is now part of the Veterinary Medicines Directorate, the regulatory authority for veterinary medicines in the UK, which was formed in 1989 and became a government agency in 1991. In essence, the scheme (SARSS) carries out the VMD's mission statement, assuring the safety, quality and efficacy of veterinary medicines after product authorisation and once they are on the market. This paper describes in detail the operation of the scheme and results to date.

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PHARMACOKINETICS - ANTIMICROBIAL SENSITIVITY AND RESISTANCE
D.G.S. Burch

Abstract
In the UK, approximately 40-45% of the therapeutic use of the 459 tonnes of antimicrobials used are administered to pigs. Much concern has recently been expressed over the development of resistant bacteria in pigs and the possibilities of the spread of antimicrobial resistance to man either by zoonotic pathogens or by bacterial contamination of food. To help the veterinarian and producer choose the antimicrobial more effectively, so that therapeutic response is improved and resistance reduced, the use of pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, in relation to the minimal inhibitory concentrations against various pathogenic bacteria, is discussed and data is presented.

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ZOONOSES ACTION PLAN SALMONELLA MONITORING PROGRAMME UPDATE
D. Armstrong

Abstract
The ZAP Salmonella Monitoring Programme was introduced in June 2002. An indirect LPS enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) is used to detect antibodies against salmonella in the fluid drained from a thawed meat sample. In the period to 31 March 2003, 26.7% of 67695 meat-juice samples tested using the salmonella ELISA were positive. In the quarter ending 31 March 2003 sample results were reported for 1812 holdings. In 1% of these holdings, where at least 15 samples were tested, the prevalence of salmonella meat-juice ELISA positive results was over 85%. The next 5% of these holdings had a prevalence of between 68.5% and 85%. Producers will be assigned to a ZAP category for the first time on the basis of samples tested up to the end of June 2003. Zoonoses Action Plan Level 2 and ZAP Level 3 producers will be required to develop an action plan for the control of salmonella at their own expense in conjunction with their farm veterinary surgeon. The target for the programme in the first 3 years is to reduce the prevalence of salmonella in pigs at slaughter by at least 25%.

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ON-FARM INTERVENTIONS IN THE CONTROL OF SALMONELLA IN PIGS
J. Lund

Abstract
Pigs infected with salmonella are a potential source of infection for the consumer. This paper describes practical measures that can be taken on a commercial pig farm to reduce and control levels of salmonella infection in pigs. These measures, all of which are examined in great detail, include - stopping entry of salmonella, reduction of levels in the environment, interference with its circulation within the unit and increasing host resistance.

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TIME TO HIT SALMONELLA IN PIGS
P. Blanchard and K. Kjeldsen

Abstract
The authors set out the case for Salmonella Monitoring Programmes and subsequent disease control measures on-farm. Such programmes are abattoir based and rely on a meat juice ELISA test. Pig farms are graded 1,2 or 3, dependent on salmonella levels recorded. Findings are followed up by applying a tranche of corrective management measures on each unit, together with feed medications aimed at altering pH values in the gut by judicious use of organic acids.

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GENETIC APPROACHES FOR THE IMPROVEMENT OF HEALTH AND PRODUCTIVITY
G.S. Plastow

Abstract
The pig industry has made remarkable progress in productivity in the last forty years. Effective control of health and genetic improvement for production traits have been key elements of this change. However, up until now, genetic improvement of health has not been possible. This will soon change when the products of genomic research are applied. It will soon be possible to identify all of the genes in the pig. This will provide the opportunity to study the impact of variation at the gene level on many of the complex processes that impact healthy pig production. However, significant progress has already been made, with diagnostic tests available today for several traits. A first marker is now available for the selection of pigs resistant to a specific disease agent (E. coli F18). Progress has also been made in the identification of markers for leg quality as well as selection for more robust animals. New tools have also been developed to study the interface between pathogens and the pig during the infection process. Such tools offer the opportunity to develop new therapies as well as providing the means to select for genetic resistance.

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THE EFFECT OF VACCINATION AGAINST MYCOPLASMA HYOPNEUMONIAE ON THE MORTALITY RATE OF GROWING PIGS AFFECTED WITH POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME
R.E. Harvey

Abstract
In a randomised, double blind, on-farm study, 400 commercial pigs were vaccinated against Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae using a licensed two-dose vaccine given at one-week and three-weeks of age and compared with 400 similar non-vaccinated pigs. The mortality rate of each treatment group was recorded; all pigs that died during the study were examined post mortem and the cause of death, based on clinical and gross pathological signs, was recorded.
???? There was no significant difference between the two treatment groups for overall deaths or deaths deemed to be associated with PMWS.

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PORCINE REPRODUCTIVE AND RESPIRATORY SYNDROME (PRRS) VIRUS - AN UPDATE
S.H. Done

Abstract
(Sponsor Paper) The purpose of this paper is to review for a United Kingdom and Irish audience the recent advances in PRRS studies. These are primarily in the USA, which is bedevilled by the disease and also in Denmark which has the problem of co-existence of both the North American and the European virus in the national herd. Authors from these countries (USA, Canada and Denmark) are significant contributors to the PRRS literature. The UK, France and Spain are almost as equally obsessed with PCV2, PMWS and PDNS to the probable exclusion of any studies on PRRS. It is interesting that, even now, authorities in the USA, which often examine the UK situation with regard to PCV2 associated diseases, still largely believe that what is seen is, in fact, not PCV2 but what they call PRRS. The fact that PMWS is widespread and a lot of Canadian pigs go to the USA, but the disease is still not described, is even a greater mystery.

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PIG HEALTH IN 2003: WHERE ARE WE?
S.H. Done

Abstract
(Member's Paper) The author presents, in engaging narrative style, the state of the pig industry in Great Britain; the influences, both political and economical, that have shaped it and a meticulous analysis of current diseases affecting swine health. He also touches on the professional problem of declining numbers of pig specialists, both in Britain and the rest of Europe, with the consequent reduction in pig orientated research programmes. This, coupled with a drastic cut in diagnostic services and a pronounced reduction in the number of farm animal veterinarians and practices, can, argues the author, only lead to a complete erosion of the skill base, with dire consequences for the future of the industry. In all, a hard-headed paper, full of the common sense, as well as the scientific truths, we have come to expect from this distinguished author.

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INCREASING THE PREDICTABILITY OF FARROWING IN SWINE WITH OXYTOCIN OR A PARASYMPATHOMIMETIC AGENT AFTER INDUCING PARTURITION BY CLOPROSTENOL
G. Balogh and G. Bilkei

Abstract
The objective of the present study was to determine the effect of a second injection of either oxytocin, or second or third injection of a parasympathomimetic agent after initial cloprostenol (prostaglandin F 2 analogue) induction, on the farrowing response of sows. The trial animals were treated as follows: Group one (n=299 sows) received a single perivulvar injection of 175 g cloprostenol at day 113 of pregnancy. Group two (n=297) were treated like those in group one, but also received 10 IU of oxytocin intramuscularly 24 hours later. Group three (n=292) were treated as group one, but also received 0.2 mg of a parasympathomimetic agent (carbamylcholine) intramuscularly 24 hours later. Group four (n=298) were the same as group three, but also received, intramuscularly, the same amount of the parasympathomimetic agent, after the first piglet had been born. Timing of farrowing, duration of parturition, total born litter size and stillbirth rates were evaluated.
???? Cloprostenol/oxytocin or cloprostenol/parasympathomimetic agent treated sows revealed significant (P<0.01) better results than the cloprostenol treated sows, except for total born litter size.

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EFFECT OF VACCINATION AGAINST POST-WEANING OEDEMA DISEASE ON PIGLET PERFORMANCE
D. Bor and G. Bilkei

Abstract
In order to study the effect of vaccination against post-weaning oedema disease, a trial was performed on a large East-European pig farm. The unit has a history of oedema disease caused losses. The trial animals were either vaccinated (group one, n=711) with a VT2e-toxoid vaccine at 1 week of age (with 12.5 g inactivated VT2e toxin per pig), and at 3 weeks of age (with 25 g inactivated VT2e toxin), or were placebo treated (group two, n=709). The piglets' post-weaning performance and serological status against VT2e toxin were evaluated.
???? Vaccination significantly (P<0.05) affected average daily nursery weight gains (group 1: 309+/-39g; group 2: 270+/-40g). Mortality due to oedema disease revealed highly significant (P<0.01) differences between the vaccinated (group 1:6 animals=0.8%) and non-vaccinated pigs (group 2:48 piglets=6.8%). The vaccinated pigs showed significantly (P<0.01) higher seropositivity to VT2e.

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PART 1: IMMUNOLOGY - THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM
E. L. Thacker

Abstract
To improve the veterinarian?s and student?s knowledge and understanding of the rapidly evolving field of immunology, Eileen Thacker, Iowa State University, has very kindly written the first in a three-part series of articles, which will appear in this and the next two volumes of The Pig Journal.

The series will comprise: -

1. Immunology ? the innate immune system (published in Vol 52)
2. Lymphocyte development and maturation (coming in Vol 53)
3. Immune system?s response to pathogens and its role in disease (coming in Vol 54)

These articles are/will be available on-line, simply click the links where available.

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