STRESS BIOLOGY IN THE PIG
S. Llamas Moya, L.A. Boyle, P.B. Lynch and S. Arkins

Abstract
In modern pig production, animals are constantly challenged by external or internal stimuli that may vary in their nature, duration and frequency.  The perception of these as threats to homeostasis will lead to the initiation of the stress response in the central nervous system.  The central nervous system regulates the biological defences against stress, which comprise behavioural, autonomic, endocrine and immune responses.  These biological responses are inter-related, and hence are highly dependent on one another.  Modifications of these responses can be associated with alterations in the well-being of pigs.  The correct operation and adaptability of the coping mechanisms available to the animals will result in a successful outcome of the stress response.

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THE ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE IN THE PIG
S. Llamas Moya, L.A. Boyle, P.B. Lynch and S. Arkins

Abstract
The acute phase response is a prominent and systemic reaction elicited by infection, inflammation, tissue injury, trauma or immunological disorders.  Pro-inflammatory cytokines are signalling molecules synthesised by immune cells, which initiate the immunological response, stimulate the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and elicit the hepatic acute phase response.  These alterations in the synthetic activity of the liver will result in changes in the concentration of specific plasma proteins, named acute phase proteins.  Acute phase proteins help in the repair, recovery of tissue and limitation of damage caused by infection or inflammation.  Glucocorticoids, the end product of HPA axis activation, are responsible for the down-regulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine production. Inflammatory processes and infection with several pathogens can elicit the acute phase response in pigs.  Hence, pro-inflammatory cytokines and acute phase proteins can be used as biomarkers of poor health and welfare in pigs.

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SICKNESS BEHAVIOUR AND STRESS SUSCEPTIBILITY IN THE PIG
S. Llamas Moya, L.A. Boyle, P.B. Lynch and S. Arkins

Abstract
Immunological challenges in pigs can result in a febrile state and cause behavioural alterations that are characteristic of sickness.  These non-specific signs of sickness are caused by pro-inflammatory cytokines, which act centrally inducing fever, as well as anorexia, lethargy or somnolence.  These physiological and behavioural changes are directed towards reducing the capacity of pathogens to replicate while maximising the host's ability to recover from the eliciting agent.  In addition, the nervous and immune systems are provided with the capacity to store information, which becomes invaluable upon exposure to repeated stressors and that may influence the outcome of the stress response.  Thus, stressful events can cause an impairment of the physiological and behavioural responses of pigs that may affect their susceptibility to suffer from stress or diseases.

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POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME: STUDIES ON DISEASE PROGRESSION IN RELATION TO SERUM ANTIBODY LEVELS TO PORCINE CIRCOVIRUS TYPE 2 (PCV2) IN SOWS AND PIGLETS AND PCV2 VIRAEMIA IN YOUNG PIGS
F. McNeilly, I. McNair, G. Stewart, G. Allan, L.E. Green, C. Waldner, J. Ellis, D. Armstrong and S. Krakowka

Abstract
Blood samples were taken from 78 sows and 774 piglets on five farrow-to-finish farms in England.  Three of these farms had ongoing outbreaks of Post-weaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS) and two were unaffected up to, and during, the time of the study. Sows were sampled 7 days prior to farrowing and piglets were sampled within the first 7 days of life. Serum antibody levels to Porcine Circovirus type 2 (PCV2) in all the samples were determined and bloods were analysed using the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) for PCV2 nucleic acid. The pigs were monitored for clinical disease for up to 16 weeks. All the pigs that died or showed clinical signs of PMWS were necropsied and tissues examined by immunohistochemistry (IHC) for PCV2 antigen.  When the tissues had histological lesions and a strong association with PCV2 antigen, the animal was deemed to have had PMWS.  These results were correlated with the PCV2 serum antibody levels and PCV2 nucleic acid content in the blood of the individual pigs in the first week of life.  The results indicate that there was no direct correlation between the levels of colostrum-derived PCV2 antibodies and the development of PMWS. However, they suggest that high levels of passively derived antibodies to PCV2 may delay the onset of PMWS. 

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THE EFFECT OF DIETARY SUPPLEMENTATION OF FINISHING PIGS WITH ORGANIC ACIDS OR
A.J. Campbell, G.E. Gardiner, F.C. Leonard, P.B. Lynch, C. Stanton, R.P. Ross and P.G. Lawlor

Abstract
The objective of this study was to assess the effect of three non-antibiotic feed additives on selected gut microflora, gastro-intestinal (GI) pH and growth performance of slaughter-age pigs. Forty female pigs were selected at ~75 kg, blocked on weight and from within the block randomly assigned to diets containing no added antimicrobial (control), mannan-oligosaccharide (BioMOS^TM), a blended acidifier (Bact-A-Cid^TM) or fumaric acid for 28 days prior to slaughter. Selected gut microbiota (coliform, lactobacilli, bifidobacteria) and pH were monitored weekly in faecal samples (n=10) as well as in GI samples taken at slaughter (n=8). Weight gain and feed intake of all pigs were measured to estimate performance effects. Only fumaric acid affected the gut microflora measured, with reductions in faecal coliforms (P<0.05) and lactobacilli (P<0.05) observed after 28 days compared with control animals. There was also a 10-fold reduction (P<0.05) in lactobacilli in the caecum and colon of fumaric acid-fed animals at slaughter. BioMOS^TM or Bact-A-Cid^TM did not significantly affect the faecal or intestinal microflora analysed and none of the feed additives affected intestinal pH. There were no differences in growth performance between the control and supplemented animals. Overall, only fumaric acid affected gut microbial populations, with reductions in coliform shedding, suggesting that it may offer potential for pathogen reduction in finishing pigs. However, this warrants further investigation in deliberate pathogen challenge studies.

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LYSINE CONCENTRATION IN THE DIET: WEIGHT LOSS IN SOWS, LITTER WEANING WEIGHT, PRE-WEANING MORTALITY AND RETURN TO OESTRUS
P.K.N. Almond and G. Bilkei

Abstract
The effect of high dietary lysine levels on the performance in a breeding unit was studied in an Eastern-European large pig production unit. White European hybrid swine genetic lines were used and 2 parallel groups of parity 2-5 sows were selected for the trial and treated as follows:
Group 1 (n=64): received on day one after parturition a lactation diet with 0.92 % lysine.
Group 2 (n=74): received during the same period a lactation diet containing 1.5% lysine.
The following parameters were evaluated:

1. lactation weight loss of the sow (kg).
2. pre-weaning mortality of piglets/litter(%).
3. weaning litter weight (kg).
4. number (%) of regular returns to oestrus after first post-weaning mating.

Parameter A showed a significant (p<0.05) difference between the groups (group one: 6.79 +/-1.33 kg vs group two 2.61 +/-0.46 kg). Parameter B showed a non-significant difference between the groups (group one 11.22 +/- 1.55% vs group two 11.19 +/- 2.01%). The weaning litter weights revealed a significant (p<0.05) difference between the groups (group one 40.01 +/-1.34 kg vs group two 44.21 +/- 1.1 kg). Regular return to oestrus after first post-weaning mating was in group one, 20.3 %, in group two, 7.8 % (p<0.05). The average food consumption per sow during the whole period of lactation was 72.1kg in group one and 81.9 kg in group two. It is the opinion of the authors that high lactational dietary lysine levels improve the reproductive performance in breeding units.

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EFFECTS OF THE BAN ON ANTIMICROBIAL FEED ADDITIVES ON PIG PRODUCTION IN DENMARK
N.J. Kjeldsen

Abstract
This paper describes the impact of removing antimicrobial growth promoter (AGP) on productivity and health in pig production in Denmark.
In February 1998, the Danish swine industry voluntarily stopped the use of all AGPs in finisher production (pigs weighing more than 35kg). Experiences collected in 62 finisher herds showed that the majority of the herds (63%) did not experience any problems such as reduced growth or increased frequency of diarrhoea. Twenty-six percent of the herds experienced temporary problems, while 11% experienced permanent problems. This result was confirmed by the national production record system, indicating that the overall development in daily gain and mortality remained unaffected by the removal of AGPs from finisher pig production.
The use of all antibiotic growth promoters for weaner pigs was voluntarily stopped in January 2000. Since then, the use of antibiotics for therapeutic treatment increased, reflecting the increasing problems with diarrhoea seen in the weaner period (7-30kg). This was reflected in the statements of the national production record system, which confirmed daily gain decreased and mortality increased after the removal of AGPs from weaner feed.
The cost of production increased by approximately DDK 7.75 (1.03 Euro) per pig produced (birth to slaughter) after the removal of AGPs. Its economic impact on the pig producers has been highly variable. Some costs associated with modifications of the production system are difficult to measure and have not been included in the economic calculation, although they may have been substantial for some producers.
Overall, the removal of AGPs from pig production in Denmark had only significant consequences for weaner production (7-30kg). The total consumption of antibiotics was reduced significantly from 206 tons (active component) in 1994 to 102 tons in 2003. Termination of antimicrobial growth promoters also dramatically reduced the food animal reservoir of resistance to these growth promoters, and thus to several clinically important antimicrobial agents in humans.

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ORGANIC ACIDS, PIG HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE
H.M. Miller and R.D. Slade

Abstract
This paper describes two experiments with organic acids conducted at Leeds University as part of the NUTWEAN project. The first experiment tested the effects of feeding diets with or without an acid blend (formic and propionic acids), fed with or without phytase replacement of dicalcium phosphate, on the performance of four-week weaned piglets. Neither acid nor phytase treatments were different from the negative control and there were no interactions between them. Phytase was able to replace dicalcium phosphate. In the second experiment, the effects of four levels of dietary sodium butyrate (0, 1.5, 3 and 6 g/kg) were compared when fed with or without zinc oxide to four-week weaned pigs. Zinc oxide improved all aspects of piglet performance. Sodium butyrate improved villus height and feed conversion ratio. Performance effects varied with zinc treatment. With zinc oxide, there was a linear increase in gain with increasing sodium butyrate in the diet. Without zinc oxide, performance was only improved at 1.5g/kg. This level of inclusion gave similar performance to the zinc oxide control diet without sodium butyrate.

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NEVER TOO OLD TO WEAN?
H.L. Edge, S.A. Edwards, M. Brade, K. Hillman, W.D. Strachan, C.A. Morgan, A. Stewart, L. Taylor, and C.M. Theobold

Abstract
Increasing weaning age may offer a possible solution to the increased health challenges to the newly weaned pig posed by the forthcoming ban on in- feed antibiotic growth promoters. However, this strategy would also have potential consequences for sow reproductive output, as well as other aspects of the farm production system. The AGEWEAN project seeks to investigate the effect of weaning age in both indoor and outdoor systems on lifetime performance of the sow and progeny, cost of production and environmental impact. Six farms are carrying out a contemporary comparison of sows weaned at 4, 6 or 8 weeks of age. Results at this preliminary stage from the first parity animals show no overall benefits in pig performance from birth to slaughter which would offset reduced sow output. However, final conclusions should not be drawn until the trial is completed.

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TOO MUCH OF A GOOD THING - PROTEIN, GUT HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE
I. J. Wellock, J.G.M. Houdijk, P.D. Fortomaris, S.A. Edwards and I. Kyriazakis

Abstract
Withdrawal of in-feed antimicrobial growth promoters (AGPs) will put the weaner pig at greater risk from enteric disorders, such as post-weaning colibacillosis (PWC) and accentuates the need for alternative, non-pharmaceutical, strategies for disease prevention. These strategies may include the manipulation of dietary protein supply, which has been associated with risk of PWC by supporting the growth of potentially harmful bacteria, and weaning age. The effects of dietary protein supply were investigated through manipulating protein quantity and/or source, including the use of rapeseed, on health and performance of pigs weaned at 4 and 6 weeks in the absence of AGPs. Results suggest that micronised whole rapeseed has the potential to be an alternative protein source in weaner pig diets, since inclusion levels greater than previously accepted did not adversely affect feed conversion efficiency. However, no beneficial antimicrobial effects were observed in respect of rapeseed inclusion. In the absence of AGPs, decreasing dietary protein supply may help to prevent and minimise the effects of PWC, especially in earlier weaned animals and particularly in environments that are challenging to the health of pigs.

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EXPERIENCES WITH ILEITIS AND COLITIS IN WEANED PIGS IN DENMARK - 1995 TO 2005
T.K. Jensen

Abstract
Intestinal infections are common diseases among growing/finishing pigs throughout the world, causing substantial economic losses and decreased animal welfare. Since 1995, intestinal bacterial pathogens have been studied intensively with special regard to diagnosis, pathogenesis and epidemiology at the Danish Institute for Food and Veterinary Research (former Danish Veterinary Institute). This presentation provides a short review of the main activities carried out until now.

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AN UPDATE AND OVERVIEW OF ZOONOTIC INFECTIONS OF PIGS
A.W. Tucker

Abstract
Pigs, like all domesticated species, can harbour an array of infectious agents capable of transmission to humans. The pattern and prevalence of these zoonotic infections are dependent upon the type of human interaction and method of production. On a global scale, zoonotic infections of pigs fall into 3 categories: food-borne, occupational, and emerging. Of the food-borne zoonoses, Salmonella sp., Campylobacter sp., Yersinia sp., Trichinella sp., Toxoplasma sp., and Taenia sp. are the most significant. Of the broad range of occupational (or contact) zoonoses known to transmit between pigs and man, this article considers the currently topical infections caused by influenza viruses and by Streptococcus suis. Finally, using the example of swine hepatitis E, the role of pigs as a vector for emerging zoonoses is considered.

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EVALUATION OF VETERINARY BIOSECURITY PROTOCOLS COMBINED WITH A RISK MATRIX ANALYSIS OF THE VETERINARY SURGEON AS A VECTOR FOR THE TRANSMISSION OF SWINE DISEASE
A. Thomsett and A.M. Johnston

Abstract
Biosecurity has become an increasingly used 'buzz word' in recent years following outbreaks of exotic diseases such as Foot and Mouth Disease and Classical Swine Fever. This increased prominence has had a knock-on effect on veterinary surgeons, farmers and politicians alike. The aim of this survey was to establish the level of importance, which veterinary surgeons working in the pig production industry place upon biosecurity and thus gauge the perception of the risk of disease transmission between units by veterinary surgeons. The transmissibility of swine disease was consequently evaluated and the results of both this and the survey combined to construct a risk analysis of disease transmission using risk matrices.

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RISK FACTORS FOR HERD BREAKDOWN WITH POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME (PMWS) IN GREAT BRITAIN
K.A. Woodbine, G.F. Medley, J. Slevin, A.L.Kilbride, E.J. Novell, M.J. Turner, M.J. Keeling and L.E. Green

Abstract
A retrospective cohort study of 116 British pig farms was undertaken to investigate the epidemiological risk factors for Post-weaning Multisystemic Wasting Syndrome (PMWS) in Great Britain (GB). Analysis of the spread of PMWS showed that PMWS occurred initially in the south of England, moving west and then northwards. The pattern of spread included long distance and local spread around infected farms, with strong evidence of non-random space-time clustering. Analysis of the main risks for introduction of PMWS indicated a change in the pattern of risk through time. Initially, farms were associated with the greatest risk of PMWS introduction if they had more than 600 sows and/or purchased gilts. During the Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) epidemic, when animal movement restrictions were in place, the greatest risk of PMWS introduction was associated with farms with a grower/finisher herd in close proximity and/or where visitors were allowed onto farms that were less than 3 days pig-free. After FMD, PMWS introduction was associated with farms that had more than 600 sows, close proximity to an infected herd and/or when visitors were allowed onto farms that were less than 3 days pig-free.

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WHERE ARE WE NOW? POST-WEANING MULTISYSTEMIC WASTING SYNDROME (PMWS) IN GREAT BRITAIN, MAY 2005
L.E. Green, K.A. Woodbine, M.J. Turner, J. Slevin, A.L. Kilbride, E.J. Novell, C. Schnier, M. Keeling and G.F. Medley

Abstract
This paper sets out the results of an analysis made by the authors to date. They assert that there is more work to be done and that such work may affect current understanding of Post-weaning multisystemic wasting syndrome (PMWS) and may refute some of the comments presented in the paper. This is the nature of science, although it can be frustrating to those working at the clinical end on-farm.

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OESOPHAGEAL MUSCULAR HYPERPLASIA AND HYPERTROPHY: A RESPONSE TO CARDIAL STENOSIS CAUSED BY PARAKERATOSIS AND ULCERATION
C. Featherstone, R. Reichel, C. Gaudie and S.H. Done

Abstract
Two cases of distal oesophageal muscular hypertrophy, causing vomiting and subsequent culling through poor body condition, are described. Attention to the food intake and stress factors has prevented further cases.
The abnormality of gastric filling seems to have predisposed to secondary infection with helicobacter and salmonellae.

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PNEUMONIC PASTEURELLOSIS AND ENZOOTIC PNEUMONIA OUTBREAK IN A PIG UNIT
J. Borobia-Belsué

Abstract
In June 2005, a 150 sow unit experienced an increase in respiratory problems and mortality in the dry sow house. This respiratory distress spread quickly into the service area, growing and finishing houses. An investigation was carried out involving clinical examinations, post-mortem examinations, factory investigations and laboratory investigations. A diagnosis of pneumonic pasteurellosis and enzootic pneumonia was reached, based on bacterial isolation and positive Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae ELISA results in some animals. A control programme consisting of Mycoplasma hyopneumoniae vaccination of piglets, feed inclusion of tilmicosin to the breeding pigs and tylosin to the growing/finishing pigs was introduced. Amoxycillin was included in the water tank of the breeding herd. This resulted in full recovery of the sows and control of the coughing in the growing/finishing pigs. Further lung scores are required in order to monitor the disease.

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HEMLOCK POISONING IN PIGS
A.M. Barlow

Abstract
Acute and chronic poisoning in farmed livestock due to hemlock (Coninum maculatum) is documented in the literature. However, cases are very rare with only a single case identified in the West Country in the last 20 years and the author is not aware of any other cases in Great Britain during this period. This incident, involving pigs in a small breeding herd, is reported. Multiple congenital contracture was seen in neonatal pigs and possible acute toxicity in one sow was also recorded. The link between the clinical signs and grazing hemlock plants is demonstrated.

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A CASE OF ERGOT POISONING IN GROWING PIGS
D. Chennells, K. Nelson, N. Penlington, J. Lock and P. Gill

Abstract
Ergot is a fungal disease, caused by Claviceps purpurea, and chiefly affecting cereals such as wheat, rye, rye grass, barley and triticale. Ergot poisoning has been known for many centuries. As well as humans, cattle and pigs can be affected. This paper describes a case of natural ergotism in growing pigs, a condition not greatly reported previously.

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THE EFFECT OF DIETARY DOXYCYCLINE ON THE HEALTH AND PERFORMANCE OF PIGS IN A HERD WITH A HIGH PREVALENCE OF PORCINE PROLIFERATIVE ENTEROPATHY (PPE)
P.K.N. Almond and G. Bilkei

Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of dietary doxycycline on the prevention and treatment of Porcine Proliferative Enteropathy (PPE). The study was conducted on 4,840 growing pigs. The pigs were assigned to either doxycycline feed medication (Group 1: n=2441), or were not treated (Group 2, n=2399). Diarrhoea, clinical signs typical for PPE, and mortality were lower (p<0.001) and weight gain was higher (p<0.001) in doxycycline treated pigs.

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